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Last Updated: January 30, 2026

CLINICAL TRIALS PROFILE FOR DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE


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505(b)(2) Clinical Trials for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE

This table shows clinical trials for potential 505(b)(2) applications. See the next table for all clinical trials
Trial Type Trial ID Title Status Sponsor Phase Start Date Summary
New Combination NCT00135187 ↗ Study of Combination Therapy With VELCADE, Doxil, and Dexamethasone (VDd) in Multiple Myeloma Completed University of Michigan Cancer Center N/A 2004-07-01 Patients are being asked to take part in this research study because they have multiple myeloma which has relapsed after (come back), or is refractory to (unaffected by), initial therapy. For patients who have relapsed or are refractory to therapy, there is no agreed upon standard treatment. Treatment options include chemotherapy and, for some patients, bone marrow transplants. None of the available treatments are curative and investigators are continually looking for more effective treatments. This study involves treatment with a new combination of standard drugs: VELCADE, Doxil, and Dexamethasone. Preliminary results from a study using a combination of VELCADE with Doxil showed high response rates (disease reduction). Two other studies showed that an addition of Dexamethasone to VELCADE in patients not responding to VELCADE alone improved response rate. The proposed combination of all three drugs may improve efficacy and response. VELCADE is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in multiple myeloma. Doxil is not approved for use in multiple myeloma but is an approved drug for use in patients with some other cancers. Several published clinical trials provide evidence that Doxil is an active agent in multiple myeloma and it is used in treatment combinations for multiple myeloma in general practice. Dexamethasone is approved for use in multiple myeloma. The combination of all three drugs is experimental (not FDA approved). The goals of this study are to determine if this new combination therapy with VELCADE, Doxil and Dexamethasone is an effective treatment, and also to determine the side effects that occur when this combination treatment is given.
New Combination NCT00135187 ↗ Study of Combination Therapy With VELCADE, Doxil, and Dexamethasone (VDd) in Multiple Myeloma Completed University of Michigan Rogel Cancer Center N/A 2004-07-01 Patients are being asked to take part in this research study because they have multiple myeloma which has relapsed after (come back), or is refractory to (unaffected by), initial therapy. For patients who have relapsed or are refractory to therapy, there is no agreed upon standard treatment. Treatment options include chemotherapy and, for some patients, bone marrow transplants. None of the available treatments are curative and investigators are continually looking for more effective treatments. This study involves treatment with a new combination of standard drugs: VELCADE, Doxil, and Dexamethasone. Preliminary results from a study using a combination of VELCADE with Doxil showed high response rates (disease reduction). Two other studies showed that an addition of Dexamethasone to VELCADE in patients not responding to VELCADE alone improved response rate. The proposed combination of all three drugs may improve efficacy and response. VELCADE is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in multiple myeloma. Doxil is not approved for use in multiple myeloma but is an approved drug for use in patients with some other cancers. Several published clinical trials provide evidence that Doxil is an active agent in multiple myeloma and it is used in treatment combinations for multiple myeloma in general practice. Dexamethasone is approved for use in multiple myeloma. The combination of all three drugs is experimental (not FDA approved). The goals of this study are to determine if this new combination therapy with VELCADE, Doxil and Dexamethasone is an effective treatment, and also to determine the side effects that occur when this combination treatment is given.
New Formulation NCT01337505 ↗ Safety and Maximum Tolerated Dose (MTD) Study of INNO-206 in Subjects With Advanced Solid Tumors Completed CytRx Phase 1 2011-04-01 This is a phase 1b open-label study evaluating the preliminary safety and maximum tolerated dose of a new formulation of INNO-206 administered at doses of 230 mg/m2, 350 mg/m2 and 450 mg/m2 (165, 260, 325 mg/m2 doxorubicin equivalents, respectively) through intravenous infusion on Day 1 every 21 days for up to 6 cycles.
New Dosage NCT01760226 ↗ Dose Adjusted EPOCH-R, to Treat Mature B Cell Malignancies Completed National Cancer Institute (NCI) Early Phase 1 2013-01-01 The subject is invited to take part in this research study because s/he has been diagnosed with Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL), Primary Mediastinal B-cell Lymphoma (PMBCL), or Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder (PTLD). In an attempt to improve cure rates while reducing harmful effects from drugs, oncologists are developing new treatment protocols. One such protocol, entitled dose-adjusted EPOCH-R, utilizes two major new strategies. First, the treatment approach utilizes continuous infusion of chemotherapy over four days, instead of being administered over minutes or hours. Secondly, the doses of some medications involved are increased or decreased based on how the drugs affect the subject's ability to produce blood cells, which is used as a measure of how rapidly the body is processing drugs. Using this approach in adults, researchers have shown improved cure rates in these cancers. Additionally, the harmful effects experienced by patients has been mild, with mucositis, severe infections, and tumor lysis syndrome occurring rarely. However, this new dosing method has never been used in children, and the effectiveness and side effects of this new method are unknown in children. The purpose of this study is to look at the safety of dose-adjusted EPOCH-R in the treatment of children with mature B-cell cancers, and to see if we can maintain cure rates (as has been shown in adults). This study represents the first trial of dose-adjusted EPOCH-R in children.
New Dosage NCT01760226 ↗ Dose Adjusted EPOCH-R, to Treat Mature B Cell Malignancies Completed Texas Children's Hospital Early Phase 1 2013-01-01 The subject is invited to take part in this research study because s/he has been diagnosed with Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL), Primary Mediastinal B-cell Lymphoma (PMBCL), or Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder (PTLD). In an attempt to improve cure rates while reducing harmful effects from drugs, oncologists are developing new treatment protocols. One such protocol, entitled dose-adjusted EPOCH-R, utilizes two major new strategies. First, the treatment approach utilizes continuous infusion of chemotherapy over four days, instead of being administered over minutes or hours. Secondly, the doses of some medications involved are increased or decreased based on how the drugs affect the subject's ability to produce blood cells, which is used as a measure of how rapidly the body is processing drugs. Using this approach in adults, researchers have shown improved cure rates in these cancers. Additionally, the harmful effects experienced by patients has been mild, with mucositis, severe infections, and tumor lysis syndrome occurring rarely. However, this new dosing method has never been used in children, and the effectiveness and side effects of this new method are unknown in children. The purpose of this study is to look at the safety of dose-adjusted EPOCH-R in the treatment of children with mature B-cell cancers, and to see if we can maintain cure rates (as has been shown in adults). This study represents the first trial of dose-adjusted EPOCH-R in children.
New Dosage NCT01760226 ↗ Dose Adjusted EPOCH-R, to Treat Mature B Cell Malignancies Completed Baylor College of Medicine Early Phase 1 2013-01-01 The subject is invited to take part in this research study because s/he has been diagnosed with Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL), Primary Mediastinal B-cell Lymphoma (PMBCL), or Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder (PTLD). In an attempt to improve cure rates while reducing harmful effects from drugs, oncologists are developing new treatment protocols. One such protocol, entitled dose-adjusted EPOCH-R, utilizes two major new strategies. First, the treatment approach utilizes continuous infusion of chemotherapy over four days, instead of being administered over minutes or hours. Secondly, the doses of some medications involved are increased or decreased based on how the drugs affect the subject's ability to produce blood cells, which is used as a measure of how rapidly the body is processing drugs. Using this approach in adults, researchers have shown improved cure rates in these cancers. Additionally, the harmful effects experienced by patients has been mild, with mucositis, severe infections, and tumor lysis syndrome occurring rarely. However, this new dosing method has never been used in children, and the effectiveness and side effects of this new method are unknown in children. The purpose of this study is to look at the safety of dose-adjusted EPOCH-R in the treatment of children with mature B-cell cancers, and to see if we can maintain cure rates (as has been shown in adults). This study represents the first trial of dose-adjusted EPOCH-R in children.
>Trial Type >Trial ID >Title >Status >Phase >Start Date >Summary

All Clinical Trials for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE

Trial ID Title Status Sponsor Phase Start Date Summary
NCT00000626 ↗ Phase II Study of Filgrastim (G-CSF) Plus ABVD in the Treatment of HIV-Associated Hodgkin's Disease Completed Amgen Phase 2 1969-12-31 Primary: To assess the toxicity of chemotherapy with ABVD (doxorubicin / bleomycin / vinblastine / dacarbazine) when given with filgrastim ( granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; G-CSF ) in patients with underlying HIV infection and Hodgkin's disease; to observe the efficacy of ABVD and G-CSF in reducing tumor burden in HIV-infected patients with Hodgkin's disease. Secondary: To determine the durability of tumor response to ABVD plus G-CSF over the 2-year study period; to observe the incidence of bacterial and opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients with Hodgkin's disease receiving this regimen; to document quality of life of patients receiving this regimen. Addition of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor may prevent neutropenia caused by chemotherapy, allowing more timely administration of chemotherapy and improved response.
NCT00000626 ↗ Phase II Study of Filgrastim (G-CSF) Plus ABVD in the Treatment of HIV-Associated Hodgkin's Disease Completed National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Phase 2 1969-12-31 Primary: To assess the toxicity of chemotherapy with ABVD (doxorubicin / bleomycin / vinblastine / dacarbazine) when given with filgrastim ( granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; G-CSF ) in patients with underlying HIV infection and Hodgkin's disease; to observe the efficacy of ABVD and G-CSF in reducing tumor burden in HIV-infected patients with Hodgkin's disease. Secondary: To determine the durability of tumor response to ABVD plus G-CSF over the 2-year study period; to observe the incidence of bacterial and opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients with Hodgkin's disease receiving this regimen; to document quality of life of patients receiving this regimen. Addition of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor may prevent neutropenia caused by chemotherapy, allowing more timely administration of chemotherapy and improved response.
NCT00000658 ↗ A Phase III Randomized Trial of Low-Dose Versus Standard-Dose mBACOD Chemotherapy With rGM-CSF for Treatment of AIDS-Associated Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Completed Schering-Plough Phase 3 1969-12-31 To determine the impact of dose intensity on tumor response and survival in patients with HIV-associated non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). HIV-infected patients are at increased risk for developing intermediate and high-grade NHL. While combination chemotherapy for aggressive B-cell NHL in the absence of immunodeficiency is highly effective, the outcome of therapy for patients with AIDS-associated NHL has been disappointing. Treatment is frequently complicated by the occurrence of multiple opportunistic infections, as well as the presence of poor bone marrow reserve, making the administration of standard doses of chemotherapy difficult. A recent study was completed using a low-dose modification of the standard mBACOD (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, bleomycin, dexamethasone, methotrexate ) treatment. A 46 percent response rate was observed in patients treated with this combination of chemotherapeutic agents, with a number of durable remissions and reduced toxicity when compared to previous experience with more standard treatments. A subsequent study showed similar effectiveness using a lower dose of methotrexate administered on day 15. It is hoped that the use of sargramostim (granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; GM-CSF) will improve bone marrow function and allow for administration of a higher dose of chemotherapy.
NCT00000658 ↗ A Phase III Randomized Trial of Low-Dose Versus Standard-Dose mBACOD Chemotherapy With rGM-CSF for Treatment of AIDS-Associated Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Completed National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Phase 3 1969-12-31 To determine the impact of dose intensity on tumor response and survival in patients with HIV-associated non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). HIV-infected patients are at increased risk for developing intermediate and high-grade NHL. While combination chemotherapy for aggressive B-cell NHL in the absence of immunodeficiency is highly effective, the outcome of therapy for patients with AIDS-associated NHL has been disappointing. Treatment is frequently complicated by the occurrence of multiple opportunistic infections, as well as the presence of poor bone marrow reserve, making the administration of standard doses of chemotherapy difficult. A recent study was completed using a low-dose modification of the standard mBACOD (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, bleomycin, dexamethasone, methotrexate ) treatment. A 46 percent response rate was observed in patients treated with this combination of chemotherapeutic agents, with a number of durable remissions and reduced toxicity when compared to previous experience with more standard treatments. A subsequent study showed similar effectiveness using a lower dose of methotrexate administered on day 15. It is hoped that the use of sargramostim (granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; GM-CSF) will improve bone marrow function and allow for administration of a higher dose of chemotherapy.
NCT00000681 ↗ A Phase I Study of the Combination of Recombinant GM-CSF, AZT, and Chemotherapy (ABV) (Adriamycin, Bleomycin, Vincristine) in AIDS and Kaposi's Sarcoma Completed National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Phase 1 1969-12-31 To determine the safety as well as the most effective dose of sargramostim (GM-CSF; granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor) that will prevent the side effects caused by the combined use of zidovudine (AZT) and various doses of cancer-fighting drugs (doxorubicin, bleomycin, and vincristine) in AIDS patients with Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). Patients included in this study have KS, which is a type of cancer that occurs in nearly 20 percent of patients with AIDS. AIDS patients with extensive KS require treatment with effective cytotoxic (anti-cancer) agents to reduce the tumor size and with antiretroviral agents such as AZT to prevent or ameliorate the development of opportunistic infections. Due to the significant toxic effect of both cytotoxic and antiviral agents on the bone marrow where new blood cells are generated, the combination of these agents is expected to result in complications such as granulocytopenia (very low granulocyte counts). Hematopoietic growth factors such as GM-CSF may reduce the severity and duration of marrow suppression. This may improve survival. Clinical trials of GM-CSF in HIV infected individuals with or without granulocytopenia have shown that the progenitor cells (early blood cells) are responsive to GM-CSF.
NCT00000689 ↗ Phase I Trial of mBACOD and Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) in AIDS-Associated Large Cell, Immunoblastic, and Small Non-cleaved Lymphoma Completed National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Phase 1 1969-12-31 To determine the toxicity and effectiveness of adding sargramostim (recombinant granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor; GM-CSF) to a standard chemotherapy drug combination (methotrexate, bleomycin, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and dexamethasone) known as mBACOD in the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in patients who are infected with HIV. Treatment of patients with AIDS-associated lymphoma is achieving inferior results when compared with outcomes for non-AIDS patients. Treatment with mBACOD has been promising, but the toxicity is very high. Patients treated with mBACOD have very low white blood cell counts. GM-CSF has increased the number of white blood cells in animal studies and preliminary human studies. It is hoped that including GM-CSF among the drugs given to lymphoma patients will prevent or lessen the decrease in white blood cells caused by mBACOD.
>Trial ID >Title >Status >Phase >Start Date >Summary

Clinical Trial Conditions for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE

Condition Name

Condition Name for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE
Intervention Trials
Breast Cancer 328
Lymphoma 196
Ovarian Cancer 97
Sarcoma 89
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Condition MeSH

Condition MeSH for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE
Intervention Trials
Lymphoma 590
Breast Neoplasms 483
Sarcoma 224
Lymphoma, Large B-Cell, Diffuse 189
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Clinical Trial Locations for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE

Trials by Country

Trials by Country for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE
Location Trials
Canada 888
Italy 609
China 456
Australia 423
Spain 392
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Trials by US State

Trials by US State for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE
Location Trials
California 472
New York 468
Texas 439
Ohio 349
Florida 341
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Clinical Trial Progress for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE

Clinical Trial Phase

Clinical Trial Phase for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE
Clinical Trial Phase Trials
PHASE4 5
PHASE3 25
PHASE2 87
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Clinical Trial Status

Clinical Trial Status for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE
Clinical Trial Phase Trials
Completed 970
Recruiting 404
Terminated 227
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Clinical Trial Sponsors for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE

Sponsor Name

Sponsor Name for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE
Sponsor Trials
National Cancer Institute (NCI) 555
M.D. Anderson Cancer Center 86
Children's Oncology Group 71
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Sponsor Type

Sponsor Type for DOXORUBICIN HYDROCHLORIDE
Sponsor Trials
Other 2622
Industry 1042
NIH 582
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Doxorubicin Hydrochloride: Clinical Trials Update, Market Analysis, and Future Projections

Last updated: January 27, 2026

Summary

Doxorubicin hydrochloride, a widely used anthracycline chemotherapeutic agent, remains integral in oncology treatment regimens, notably for breast cancer, lymphoma, and sarcoma. As of 2023, ongoing clinical trials explore its combinatorial efficacy, delivery systems, and safety enhancements. The global market, driven by increasing cancer prevalence and expanding indications, is projected to grow significantly over the next five years. This report synthesizes current clinical developments, provides comprehensive market analysis, and offers projections aligned with industry trends and regulatory landscapes.


What Are Recent Developments in Clinical Trials for Doxorubicin Hydrochloride?

Current Clinical Trial Landscape

  • Number of Trials: Approximately 150 clinical studies globally focus on doxorubicin, involving phases I–III, with some Phase IV post-marketing investigations [1].

  • Key Focus Areas:

    • Combination therapies: Investigating synergistic effects with newer agents (e.g., immune checkpoint inhibitors).
    • Delivery platforms: Encapsulation within liposomes or nanoparticles to reduce cardiotoxicity.
    • Dose optimization and scheduling: Aiming to improve efficacy while minimizing adverse events.
    • Safety enhancements: Monitoring cardiotoxicity and secondary malignancies.

Notable Ongoing Clinical Trials

Trial ID Title Phase Primary Focus Status Location
NCT04576769 Liposomal Doxorubicin in Ovarian Cancer III Efficacy & safety comparison Recruiting USA
NCT04268791 Doxorubicin with Pembrolizumab in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer II Synergistic efficacy Active Multiple
NCT03944591 Doxorubicin-loaded Nanoparticles for Sarcoma I/II Delivery system safety Recruiting Europe

Emerging Technologies in Formulation and Delivery

  • Liposomes: Doxil (Caelyx) remains the most prevalent liposomal formulation, significantly reducing cardiotoxicity [2].
  • Polymeric nanoparticles: Enhanced tumor targeting and controlled release.
  • Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs): Preliminary studies explore conjugating doxorubicin to monoclonal antibodies for precision therapy.

Regulatory and Safety Research

Recent studies emphasize the genetic and molecular markers predictive of cardiotoxicity, guiding personalized dosing strategies [3].


Market Analysis

Market Size and Growth Factors

Parameter 2022 Data 2023 Projection CAGR (2023–2028) Source
Global market size ~$1.2 billion ~$1.4 billion 8.2% [1], [4]
Key growth drivers Rising cancer incidence, new indications New formulations, combination therapies
Major regions North America (45%), Europe (30%), Asia-Pacific (20%)

Note: CAGR reflects the compound annual growth rate of the doxorubicin hydrochloride market, primarily driven by oncology drug pipeline expansion and geographic market penetration.

Market Segmentation

Segment Type Share (2022) Growth Outlook (2023–2028) Notes
Formulation Liposomal 70% 9% CAGR Lipsomal formulations dominate due to toxicity profile
Conventional 30% 5% CAGR Used in resource-limited settings
Indication Breast cancer 40% 8.5% Largest segment
Lymphoma 25% 7.5% Significant in hematologic cancers
Sarcomas 10% 6% Niche but growing segment
Others (ovarian, gastric) 25% 9% Expansion via new trials

Key Market Players

Company Product Market Share Notes
Pfizer Caelyx (Liposomal doxorubicin) 35% Leading in formulation patents
Sanofi Doxorubicin hydrochloride injection 25% Generic and branded products
Teva DOXIL 20% Generic formulations
Others Various 20% Emerging biosimilars and formulations

Pricing and Reimbursement

  • Average Price (2023): ~$50–$70 per vial (100 mg), variable by region.
  • Reimbursement Policies: Favor liposomal formulations due to improved safety profile, especially in U.S. and Europe.

Market Projection and Industry Outlook

Projection Assumptions

  • Clinical advancements will lead to increased adoption of novel formulations.
  • Regulatory approvals for combination therapies enhance market size.
  • Patent expirations may prompt price reductions but also stimulate biosimilar entry.
  • Global cancer incidence continues to rise at an estimated 2.4% CAGR through 2030 [5].

Forecast for 2023–2028

Parameter 2023 2028 CAGR Implications
Market size ~$1.4 billion ~$2.3 billion 10% Significant growth driven by new formulations, expanded indications
Formulation share Liposomal (~70%) Liposomal (~80%) Shifting toward liposomal Positive for safer formulation dominance
Regional growth North America & Europe Asia-Pacific & LATAM 12% Emerging markets access increased through generics

Key Market Opportunities

  • Expansion into metastatic and resistant cancers.
  • Development of targeted conjugates and nanoparticles.
  • Strategic alliances for drug delivery platforms.
  • Regulatory pathways for biosimilars and generics.

Deep-Dive: Comparison with Similar Drugs

Parameter Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Epirubicin Daunorubicin Idarubicin
Indications Broad (breast, lymphoma, sarcoma) Similar, fewer approvals Leukemias Leukemias & lymphomas
Toxicity Profile Cardiotoxicity notable Slightly lower cardiotoxicity Similar Similar
Formulations Conventional, liposomal Conventional Conventional Conventional

Note: Doxorubicin’s extensive use and established safety profile give it a competitive edge, although newer anthracyclines claim reduced toxicity.


FAQs

1. What are the primary clinical advantages of liposomal doxorubicin over conventional formulations?

Liposomal doxorubicin significantly reduces cardiotoxicity, enhances tumor accumulation through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, and often results in fewer infusion-related reactions.

2. How does ongoing research impact the future market for doxorubicin hydrochloride?

Innovation in targeted delivery systems, combination therapies, and personalized medicine is expected to expand indications, improve safety, and generate higher demand, stimulating market growth.

3. What regulatory challenges could influence doxorubicin’s market penetration?

Approval of biosimilars, rigorous safety monitoring (especially cardiotoxicity), and evolving guidelines for combination therapy approval may influence market dynamics.

4. Which regions are expected to see the fastest growth in doxorubicin adoption?

Asia-Pacific and Latin America are projected to experience faster growth due to increasing cancer prevalence, expanding healthcare infrastructure, and generic availability.

5. What are the key unmet needs in doxorubicin therapy?

Mitigation of cardiotoxicity, overcoming resistance, and improving targeted delivery remain significant clinical and commercial challenges.


Key Takeaways

  • Clinical Trials: Doxorubicin continues to be a focus of innovative delivery systems (liposomes, nanoparticles) and combination strategies, predominantly in Phase II and III trials.
  • Market Size & Growth: The global market is expanding at approximately 8–10% CAGR, anticipated to reach over $2.3 billion by 2028.
  • Formulation Trends: Liposomal formulations dominate due to safety and efficacy advantages, with ongoing development of novel delivery platforms.
  • Regional Expansion: Growth is substantial in North America, Europe, and emerging markets, driven by rising cancer burden and biosimilar adoption.
  • Industry Outlook: Advances in personalization, regulatory approvals, and biosimilar competition will shape competitive dynamics, potentially stabilizing or reducing prices.

References

[1] ClinicalTrials.gov. (2023). Doxorubicin-related trials.

[2] Barenholz Y. (2012). Doxil® — The first FDA-approved nano-drug: lessons learned. Journal of Controlled Release.

[3] Yeh ETH, et al. (2016). Cardiotoxicity of anthracyclines: mechanisms and preventive strategies. Nature Reviews Cardiology.

[4] MarketWatch. (2023). Oncology drug market forecast.

[5] Globocan. (2022). Cancer Incidence and Mortality Worldwide.


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